|
|
|
Timeline: Women in Science and Engineering 1833 Fact: Oberlin is the first college to admit women. Colleges existed in the U.S. for 197 years up to this year. (Harvard was founded in 1636). That means that for two centuries all colleges were (white?) men’s colleges. Soooo, the Founding Fathers did not share the work of governance, invention, commerce, and advanced learning, etc, with women and slaves. 1871 Fact: MIT admits the first female student in chemistry. 1900 Fact: Forty percent of all college students are female. 1950s Fact: Carnegie Institute banned women from using the telescope at Mt. Wilson in California. 1960s Fact: Cal Tech, MIT and Harvard do not admit women to graduate programs in physics and astronomy. 1960 Law: Civil Rights Act 1970s Fact: “Women in academia began to make progress. This was dependent on three factors: concerted protest by women themselves, appropriate legislation and the use of class action suits to enforce the legislation (Chamberlain, 1988). Affirmative action..." per EU Commission report 1971 Org : The Association for Women in Science (AWIS) is founded. 1972 Law : Title IX, Educational Amendments of 1972 prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance. 1978 Book: Judith Ramaley, ed, Covert Discrimination and Women in the Sciences, an AAAS Symposium 1981 Law : Equal Opportunities for Women and Minorities in Science and Technology Act of 1981. It instructed the National Science Foundation (NSF) to proactively recruit women and minorities and to report statistics on the workforce biennially. Fact: NSF provides fellowships and research grants for women. (Visiting Professorships, Faculty Awards, Research Planning Grants and Career Advancement Awards. These are incorporated into the Professional Opportunities for Women in Research and Education in the 1990s.) 1982 Book: NSF’s very authoritative biennial statistics publication Women, Minorities, and Persons With Disabilities in S&E is issued. Book: Joan Skolnick et al, How to Encourage Girls in Math and Science : strategies for parents and educators 1984 Book: Ruth Bleier’s Science and Gender : a critique of biology and its theories on women Book: Margaret Rossiter, Women Scientists in America : struggles and strategies to 1940 1986 Fact: The Luce Foundation offers Claire Boothe Luce Professorships to support women scientists early in their careers. It creates tenure track positions and funds them for the first 5 years. Covers expenses for travel and childcare. Every one of 70 recipients had gained tenure by 1999. 1989 Fact: Germany issues its first national report on Promotion of Women in Science. Fact: Harvard tenures its first woman chemistry professor. 1990 Book: Elizabeth Fennema, Mathematics and Gender Org : AAAS creates a Directorate for Education and Human Resources to address diversity in the S&E workforce. Org : Women in Engineering Programs and Advocates Network (WEPAN) formed. Book: The Association for Women in Science (AWIS) launches a mentoring project. In 1993 they publish A Hand Up : women mentoring women in science 1990s Fact: There is increasing concern about the quality of science and mathematics education (more particularly the science literacy of the population), and, falling enrollments in science and engineering, and, the “white male” composition of scientists and engineers. Various longitudinal studies were showing declining interest in mathematics, physical sciences, and especially engineering and computer science over twenty years. These losses came to be called “leakage” in the SEM pipeline – or “loss in the pool of talent.” Fact: The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics issues math standards. Statewide system reform projects attempt to improve the quality of education and preparation in math and science. Fact: By the mid 90s, special programs for women in engineering have increased participation from 2% in the mid 70s to 17% (over two decades). The percentage stays roughly constant through 2002. 1991 Org: Committee on Women in Science and Engineering (CWSE) is established as a standing committee of the National Research Council (NRC) Fact: The National Science Foundation Directorate in Biological Sciences initiates a policy via memorandum that conferences and workshops will not be funded unless women are included as speakers. Book: American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) issues Investing in Human Potential : Science and engineering at the crossroads (by M.L. Matyas and Shirley M. Malcom). 1992 Fact: Harvard tenures its first woman physis professor. Fact: NSF sponsors National Conference on Diversity in the Scientific and Technological Workforce. Fact: Ms Foundation starts Take Our Daughters to Work Day. Book: Zuckerman et al, The Outer Circle : women in the scientific community Book: AAUW, How Schools Shortchange Girls Book: Beatriz (Toni) Clewell et al, Breaking the Barriers : helping female and minority students succeed in mathematics and science Book: Marsha Matyas and Linda Skidmore Dix, Science and Engineering Programs : on target for women ? (from National Academy of Science) 1992-95 Fact: A study of physics departments finds it is a chilly climate for women. There are few females on the physics faculty, little interaction between faculty and students, and a lack of respect for female students as a group. 1993 Fact: The National Science Foundation initiates funding for educational programs in science, mathematics, and technology that will reach out to girls. Book: AAAS Benchmarks for Science Literacy standards emphasize hands-on activities, cooperative learning, problem solving, and conceptual thinking in science classroom. 1994 Fact: Mills College holds a Women in Science Summit, looking at women in top ranks. Presents extensive plan of action. Book: Sloan Foundation funds research on gender issues across universities ; publishes results in The Equity Equation (1996, by Davis, Ginorio, Hollenshead, Lazarus, Rayman et al). Book: David and Myra Sadker, Failing at Fairness – How America’s Schools Cheat Girls Book: Sue Rosser and Bonnie Kelly, Educating Women for Success in Science and Mathematics Book: Jo Sanders, Lifting the Barriers : 600 strategies that really work to increase girls’ participation in science, mathematics, and computers 1995 Fact: Women reach parity in graduation rates in biology and agricultural sciences. Fact: Tenured engineering faculty is about 3% female. Fact: The Gender Equity Act in Finland is amended to require that national committees and national research councils have a minimum of 40% of either gender. Italy requires 30% as the definition of « balance. » Fact: Conference on Women and Science: Celebrating Achievements, Charting Challenges conducted by the National Science Foundation. (Proceedings published in March 1997.) Book: Margaret Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: before affirmative action, 1940-1972 Book: Gerhard Sonnert, Who Succeeds in Science? The Gender Dimension Book: Angela Ginorio, Warming the Climate for Women in Academic Science Book: Sue Rosser, Teaching the Majority: breaking the gender barrier in science, mathematics, and engineering 1996 Fact: The TIMMS study (international student performance) shows that U.S. 12th grade students rank among the lowest internationally in science and mathematics. Book: Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science 1995-97 Fact: Backlash to affirmative action. California (1995) and Texas (1996) bar consideration of race in graduate admissions. Enrollments of minorities in medical and law schools drop sharply. 1997 Fact: The Dutch issue a Law on Equal Representation of Women in Leading Positions in Education. Universities are mandated to set targets and measures. Book: Elaine Seymour and Nancy Hewitt’s book Talking About Leaving looks at why students quit science. It is not that “science is hard.” It is about a “chilly climate,” lack of financial support, weak pre-college preparation, not enough social interaction with faculty, and poor teaching. Shows that good (capable) students are quitting. Book: Sue Rosser, Re-Engineering Female Friendly Science 1998 Fact: First female director of the National Science Foundation, Rita Colwell, a microbiologist. Book: William Bowen and Derek Bok publish The Shape of the River, making the case that affirmative action for minorities is successful in insuring equity in college admissions at highly selective colleges and universities, and that this is the only way we can build national capacity, recruit diverse faculty. Book: The National Center for Research on Women issues The Girls Report. Notes that the gender gap is narrowing. Org: Anita Borg founds the Institute for Women and Technology to highlight the lack of women in the booming field of computer systems design and engineering. Fact: At Intel’s International Science and Engineering Fair for high school students, 47% of the finalists are girls. Book: The New York Academy of Science holds a conference on women in science and engineering, publishing Women in Science and Engineering: choices for success (Cecily Selby, ed). Book: Margaret Eisenhart and Elizabeth Finke’s Women’s Science: learning and succeeding from the margins Fact: Researcher Patricia Gurin finds that white college students who had the most experience with racial diversity had higher scores on test in complex thinking, more motivation to achieve, and higher level of citizenship. Research shows that all students learn better when exposed to students UNLIKE themselves. Book: US Department of Education publishes Women and Men of the Engineering Path that shows the attrition of women in engineering is more than twice the rate of men, AFTER they have completed 15 credits toward the degree in college. Book: Suzanne Brainard et al, A Curriculum for Training Mentors and Mentees aimed at engineering Book: AAUW, Gender Gaps: Where Schools Still Fair Our Children Book: Roberta Furger, Does Jane Compute? Preserving our daughter’s place in the cyber revolution Book: Jane Butler Kahle, “Measuring Progress Toward Equity in Science and Mathematics Education” identifies indicators for evaluation of “equity” Book: Linda Samuels, Girls Can Succeed in Science! Antidotes for science phobia in boys and girls Fact: Congress approves the use of H1-B visas to allow foreign experts to work in the U.S. for a number of years. The number approved is 60,000 initially. At least half issued are for engineering and technology specialists. The U.S. production of B.S. degrees in computer science and engineering is around 100,000. 1999 Fact: New European Union science plans (called the Fifth and Sixth Frameworks) establish a Women and Science sector in the General Research Directorate. Book: MIT shares its internal faculty Report on the Status of Women. The report took five years to collect data. It showed that only 7 percent of tenured professors in science departments are women, and the percentage had not changed in a decade, in spite of increasing availability of graduates in science. Fact: The ACLU sues California on behalf of high school student who did not have access to advanced placement curriculum, when admissions criteria were heavily weighed in favor of AP course takers. Fact: A Silicon Valley Joint Venture Workforce Study says that the 31-37% workforce gap (the difference between technology workers we need and those we have) costs $4 billion annually. Book: Virginia Valian’s Why So Slow? The Advancement of Women comes out, with the idea of gender schema that biases everyone, and cites the research on “cumulated disadvantage” Book: Jody Bart’s Women Succeeding in the Sciences: theories and practices across disciplines Fact: The number of women working in computer science is at 27%, and in engineering at 9%. 2000 Fact: The H1-B visa program is at the level of 200,000 per year, most of which are in engineering and technology. (U.S. production of B.S. degrees in those fields is around 100,000.) Book: U.S. Congress approves a Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science, Engineering and Technology, also called “the Morella Commission.” Members conduct hearings for a year and produce the report Land of Plenty. Book: The Clinton administration: Report on Wage Gap, Unveils New Science and Technology Training Initiatives, and Urges Passage of Paycheck Fairness Act. May 11, 2000, noting especially the pay gap in information technology fields. Book: The National Science and Technology Council releases Ensuring a Strong U.S. Scientific, Technical and Engineering Workforce in the 21st Century. It raises the need for a DOMESTIC workforce, and recruitment “from all ethnic and gender groups." Fact: NSF initiates the Information Technology Workforce program, to fund research on why women and minorities are under-represented. Book: Glenn Commission report: Mathematics and Science Teaching for the Twenty-First Century: Before It’s Too Late. Need for more preparation for math and science teachers, need more role models. Book: National Center for Education Statistics, Entry and Persistence of Women and Minorities in College Science and Engineering Education Book: National Science Foundation, a Summary Report of the Impact Study of the NSF’s Program for Women and Girls that showed high effectiveness in experimental programs, identified best practices, and showed that many programs were continued after the experimental stage Book: American Association of University Women issues Si, Se Puede! Yes, We Can: Latinas in School, identifying different circumstances and experience of Latinas. Book: The Computing Research Association issues a workshop report on what computer science graduate departments can do to recruit and retain women, by Cuny and Aspray. Book: AAUW, Tech-Savvy: educating girls in the new computer age Book: George Campbell et al, ed, Access Denied: race, ethnicity and the scientific enterprise Book: Etzkowitz et al, Athena Unbound: the advancement of women in science and technology Book: Susan Ambrose et al, Journeys of Women in Science and Engineering: no universal constants, which profiles leading women Book: Jo Sanders, Fairness at the Source: assessing gender equity in teacher education for colleges and universities 2001 Fact: More than 50% of all Ph.D.’s in computer science and engineering are foreign students. Org: NIH establishes the Office of Women, recognizing that much medical research did not include women as subjects, and that sex-based biological differences have not been factored, traditionally. Org: Following the Morella Commission recommendations, the Council on Competitiveness hosts the BEST organization, to coordinate efforts across government, industry, and higher education. Fact: NSF initiates the ADVANCE program at the level of $20 million, to address the lack of female faculty in science and engineering. Book: The National Council for Research on Women issues Balancing the Equation, synthesizing lessons learned and best practices in increasing participation of women in S&E. Fact: MIT hosts nine top research universities to discuss equitable treatment of women S&E faculty. Fact: Shirley M. Tilghman, a molecular biologist, is made the 19th president of Princeton University, and the first woman. Fact: Shirley Ann Jackson, the first African American woman to receive a doctorate from MIT and one of the first two to receive a doctorate in physics from MIT, is made president of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Fact: Gro Harlem Brundtland, a physician and Norwegian prime minister, becomes the first woman to head the World Health Organization. Fact: The Three Guineas Fund, founded in 1995 by Catherine Muther to expand educational and economic access for women, starts the Women’s Technology Cluster, an incubator for 10 high-tech startups run by women. Book: Lazarus et al, The Woman’s Guide to Navigating he Ph.D. in Engineering and Science Book: Muriel Lederman and Ingrid Bartsch, ed, The Gender and Science Reader Book: Mary Wyer et al, Women, Science and Technology: a feminist reader Book: Jane Margolis and Allan Fisher, Unlocking the Clubhouse, which identifies changes introduced at Carnegie Mellon University that dramatically increased enrollment of women in computer science Book: Maralee Mayberry, Feminist Science Studies: a new generation Book: Caryn McTighe Musil, AACU, Gender, Science and the undergraduate curriculum: building two-way streets (on new ways to teach science) Book: National Research Council, Committee on Women in S&E, From Scarcity to Visibility: gender differences in the careers of doctoral scientists and engineers Book: Girl Scouts of the USA, The Girl Difference: short-circuiting the myth of the technophobic girl Book: Linda Kekelis and Etta Heber, Girls First: a guide to starting science clubs for girls 2002 Book: BEST issues The Quiet Crisis: Falling Short in Producing American Scientific and Technical Talent, witten by Shirley Ann Jackson. Book: Goodman Research Group, Final Report of the Women’s Experiences in College Engineering (WECE) Project Book: Pat Campbell et al, Upping the Numbers: using research-based decision making to increase diversity in the quantitative disciplines Book: Beatrice (Toni) Clewell and Pat Campbell write “Taking Stock: where we’ve been, where we’re going” in Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering Book: Carol Burger and Mary Sandy, A Guide to Gender Fair Counseling for Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Fact: Post 9/11, the number of foreign students and workers (including those in engineering and computer science) is highly constrained due to security concerns. 2003 Org: National Center for Women in Information Technology (NCWIT) created. Book: Yu Xie and Kimberlee Shauman, Women in Science: career processes and outcomes 2004 Book: U.S. Government Accounting Office report to Congress on Gender Issues: Women’s Participation in the Sciences Has Increased But Agencies Need to do More to Ensure Compliance With Title IX. The report dispels the prevailing concept (for 32 years!!!) that Title IX was just about sports, and K-12. It notes that Title IX also applies to higher education, and especially to programs (science and engineering) that still do not serve women. Title IX (since 1972) has always been about equal opportunity in any educational setting receiving Federal funding. Actual text: “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.” Fact: The National Science Board addresses “broadening participation” in workshops and a report on diversity. Fact: The National Academy of Engineering addresses “capacity in the engineering research enterprise” with explicit focus on diversity. Book: National Women’s Studies Association Journal special issue: (Re)Gendering Science Fields Fact: The percentage of girls taking Advanced Placement tests in computer science creeps up to 15%. Fact: MIT appoints a woman neurobiologist, Susan Hockfield, as president. Fact: Among Intel’s International Science and Engineering Fair for high school students, 52% of those in biochemistry are female, 23% in math, and 11% in computer science. Book: Sue Rosser, The Science Glass Ceiling Book: BEST issues A Bridge for All: higher education design principles to broaden participation in science, technology, engineering and mathematics Book: BEST issues The Talent Imperative: meeting America’s challenge in science and engineering, ASAP Book: NSF issues New Formulas for America’s Workforce: girls in science and engineering (summarizing a decade of investment in educational programs and research to increase participation) Book: AAUW, Under the Microscope: a decade of gender equity projects in the sciences, summarizes types of programs that were funded by NSF and AAUW Book: AAUW, Tenure Denied: cases of sex discrimination in academia Book: National Center for Education Statistics, Trends in Educational Equity of Girls and Women: 2004 2005 Fact: Foreign students make up 37% of full-time graduate enrollments in all S&E. Fact: Half of Ph.D.’s in engineering in the U.S. are foreign students. U.S. production of domestic engineers is far behind China, India, European Union. One of the most productive (per population) is South Korea. China produces 4 times more engineers. South Korea produces as many engineers as the U.S., although it has 1/6th the population and 1/20th the GDP. Book: European Union Commission, Women and Science Unit, Women and Science: Excellence and Innovation – Gender Equality in Science Book: National Research Council, Committee on Women in Science and Engineering, To Recruit and Advance: women students and faculty in science and engineering Book: Donna Nelson issues “A National Analysis of Diversity in Science and Engineering Faculties at Research Universities” which compares the composition of top 10 departments in science and engineering fields against the composition of graduating Ph.D’s and shows that faculty is not reflecting the diversity of students available, and hiring patterns are not consistent with the available pool. Fact: Larry Summers, the President of Harvard, attends a meeting of experts on the status of women in science and engineering, and, overlooking decades of research and any hesitation to speak anyway, says that innate differences and lack of interest explain the low numbers of female faculty. Hundreds of pages of press, from the New York Times, Washington Post, Time, Newsweek, to scientific journals (Science) follow. Book: For example, Sarah Glazer has an article in CQ (Congressional Quarterly) Researcher, “Gender and learning: are there innate differences between the sexes?” Book: Harvard University, Report of the Task Force on Women Faculty. Initiated by Summers. Identifies a wide array of best practices and policies for higher education. Harvard decides to invest $30 million to improve status. 2006 Fact: Larry Summers resigns as President of Harvard, due to vehement “no confidence” vote from the faculty. Was he missing the gene for success? Or did he lose interest? Maybe it was the work-family balance – he got married just months before this. (In the old days of the 60s, women were fired if they got married or got pregnant.) Fact: More than 57% of all college students are female (all fields). Admissions policies adopt affirmative action (quotas) for men, in order to preserve student diversity. (That is, better qualified females are rejected for lesser-qualified males.) However, percentage of females enrolled in engineering is still low -- about 18% in 2002 (and static for nearly 10 prior years). Book: Joanne Cohoon and Willam Aspray’s Woman and Information Technology: research on under-representation summarizes a number of studies (MIT Press) …...............................................
|
© copyright 2006-2008 |
. |
Contact: ruta@momox.org |